Restructuring the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC): Philippine Prospects for Regional Collective Defense and Stronger Military Relations Essay

Economic development through greater regional cooperation was the primary aim of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) when it was formed on August 8, 1967 by the founding countries of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. Although one of the motivations at that time of forming the association was the common fear of communist expansion (especially in Vietnam) and insurgency within their respective borders, the ASEAN has not ventured into creating a military alliance to promote â€Å"regional peace and stability†. Hence, the ASEAN is formally recognized as an economic organization with no military obligations tying member nations. But with the recent rise of security tensions, primarily caused by the aggressive actions taken by China against the Philippines and co-claimant ASEAN nations over territories located at the South China Sea; the prospect of creating an ASEAN military alliance to solve the â€Å"Chinese security problem†, has become very tempting. The researcher believes that indeed, stronger military relations between ASEAN nations will not only help address the security threat posed by China but also assist in resolving the territorial disputes between co-member  nations. Thus, this paper proposes a restructuring of the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) such that it will allow the establishment and creation of the following: (1) A regional military alliance that will promote collective defense (2) the ASEAN peacekeeping force and (3) the ASEAN Security Council. The paper also examines the imperative role of the United States and Japan in the resolution of the security issues in the region; the feasibility of the proposal in the context of the status quo, and the possible problems that will face the military alliance once it is forged. 1. INTRODUCTION During the 1970s until the 1990s, security issues began assailing the stability of the Southeast Asian (SEA) region as territorial disputes erupted between fellow ASEAN nations and China. The said disputes were mainly about the disagreement on maritime boundaries and territorial claims made on islands on the South China Sea (or the West Philippine Sea). The situation did not improve upon entering the 21st century as the conflicts seemed to worsen. In 2005, Chinese ships allegedly fired upon two Vietnamese fishing boats from Thanh Hoa province which killed 9 people.1 If there was something common with all the incidents of skirmishes and standoffs in the much contested area since the 1980s, it was the constant involvement of the Chinese navy. China was dubbed as the rising bully of the South China Sea. With a formidable military strength and an aggressive foreign policy in dealing with territorial disputes, China was becoming a great security menace to not only the Philippines and the SEA region but to the rest of the world. The stability of the SEA region is a paramount concern of Philippine national security, one of the three pillars of Philippine foreign policy. 2 Moreover, Philippine defense officials and security experts view Chinese expansionist aspirations in the South China Sea as the main longterm security threat to the Philippines. 3 The renewed tensions between the Philippines and China last April 8, 2012 at the Scarborough Shoal has led to speculations of a Philippine-China war and its implications to the Philippine-US mutual  defense treaty. International relations experts though, doubt the commitment of the US to come in the Philippines defense once it is attacked by China as it has not confirmed whether the scope of the treaty covers contested territories in the South China Sea.4 1 â€Å"Chinese ships ‘shot to kill’ Vietnamese fishermen; survivor†. Vietnam Seaports Association. 17 January 2005. â€Å"Philippine Foreign Policy†. The Official Website of the Republic of the Philippines – Department of Foreign Affairs. 11 August 2009. 3 Sokolsky, R., Rabasa A., & Neu, C. R. 2001, p. 33 4 â€Å"Stirring up the South China Sea (II): Regional Responses†. Inernational Crisis Group. 24 July 2012. 2 With that in mind, it is apparent then that relying on the US for military assistance in the event of a Chinese attack is useless. What the Philippines need is a military alliance of committed nations who have more or less the same stake in the South China Sea territorial dispute. That being said, the most logical choice would be creating an alliance with our fellow ASEAN claimant nations. 2. REGIONAL COLLECTIVE DEFENSE: ATTEMPT AND FAILURE The idea of creating an international organization for collective defense in the SEA region to offset growing Chinese influence is not new to international politics. In fact it was once tried with the signing of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty or Manila Pact, in Manila, Philippines which created the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The organization was then formally established on February 19, 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok, Thailand.5 One of the rationales for the creation of SEATO was to counteract communist influence in Southeast Asia, especially that of Communist China, through an anti-communist collective defense alliance.6 The organization though is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military. Also, SEATO was inefficient in promoting regional stability (failing to prevent the escalation of the Vietnam War) as only two SEA nations joined the organization, namely the Philippines and Thailand. Majority of the members were located outside the region. After a final exercise on 20 February 1976, SEATO was formally dissolved on June 30, 1977.7 3. RESTRUCTURING THE ASEAN POLITICAL-SECURITY COMMUNITY (APSC) Former Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, in response to the growing threat of terrorism in the region, called for a collective security system within the ASEAN in 2004.8 But 5 Leifer 2005 Franklin 2006, p. 1 7 Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) 2000, p. 60 6 under the original ASEAN charter, a multilateral approach on military and security issues is disallowed. Furthermore, the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) in its blueprint has vowed to rely exclusively on peaceful processes in resolving intra-regional and extra-regional differences. Since the status quo hinders any step towards regional collective defense, a major overhaul would be required for the proposal to push through.9 This paper proposes a revision on the original ASEAN charter in a way that will allow the transformation of the APSC into an authoritative military body. Such transition will be facilitated by the creation of the ASEAN Security Council which will serve as the overseeing organ of the APSC and will assist  in the forging of a collective defense alliance and a peacekeeping force under the ASEAN. The fundamental concept of each proposal is discussed briefly below. 3.1 ASEAN Security Council The proposed body will serve as the highest authoritative body of the APSC and will be composed by the member states of the ASEAN and represented by a delegate from each nation. Its tasks will include (but will not be limited to) supervision, policy formulation and implementation, and decision-making regarding regional security issues under the APSC. 3.2 ASEAN Collective Defense Alliance The forging of this alliance must be legitimized under the ASEAN charter through the necessary amendments and should not in any way violate existing international laws. Under the proposed framework, every ASEAN nations must pledge to defend each other in the event of an extra-regional attack. In dealing with intra-regional disputes though, collective defense cannot be invoked. Any incidence of intra-regional conflicts will be subject to investigation of the ASEAN Security Council and will be decided on accordingly. 8 9 â€Å"ASEAN and collective security system†. The Jakarta Post. 7 December 2004 See The ASEAN Charter, pp. 23-28 and ASEAN Political-Security Community Blueprint, pp. 8-14 3.3 ASEAN Peacekeeping Force During times of regional unrest caused by military conflict between member nations, the formation of a peacekeeping force maybe ordered by the ASEAN Security Council. The peacekeeping force will be composed of military personnel contributed by the non-involved states and will serve a specific term or until the conflict is resolved. Duties of the ASEAN peacekeeping force will include protecting civilians, assisting in post-war disarmament, escorting of important diplomats and peace negotiators, demobilization and  reintegration of former combatants. 4. POLITICAL-SECURITY IMPACT ANALYSIS The evocations of an ASEAN military pact will have a strong bearing on China’s future foreign policy. Perhaps a positive effect (if the recommendation is pursued) will be the taming down of the aggressiveness of China in dealing with the South China Sea issue. With a population of over 600 million people, a steady and growing economy, and tightening diplomatic relations with the U.S. and Japan; the military potential of the ASEAN cannot be simply overlooked. Both the U.S. and Japan, with their political and economic stakes in Southeast Asia and shared apprehension of the growing Chinese power, are likely to support a militarily united ASEAN to secure their interests in the region. Furthermore, a militarily integrated ASEAN eases the burden of the U.S. in playing the role of regional balancer and provides both countries with a strong political leverage in dealing with Chinese expansionism in the South China Sea. That being said, it is only logical to count on both technical and moral support from the two extraregional powers should the ASEAN decide to pursue the endeavor. Another possible positive outcome will be the proficient resolution of intra-regional conflicts. Under the proposed APSC framework, existing and future intra-regional disputes will be settled through the ASEAN Security Council instead of state-to-state negotiations. A collective defense alliance also serves as deterrence to any thought of aggression towards a comember and strengthens solidarity through a common sense of military identity. But other considerations like the reactions of Chinese allies or even those of neutral observers to the region will also matter. A negative feedback by the international community can have a bad implication to the future of the proposed collective defense organization. China’s reaction itself is also an important consideration. Although it is more likely that China will become more restrained in dealing with a militarily united ASEAN in the South China Sea, one cannot absolutely ascertain such outcome. An opposite course of what is expected, however unlikely, is still possible. Another point to ponder upon is the role the Philippines will play in the pursuance of an ASEAN military pact. Do we play the regional leader role and take on the initiative? Or become a regional-subsystem collaborator and let another ASEAN nation assume the central role? Whatever it may be, it is a necessity for the Philippines to pick an active role if it is to protect its interest in the matter. 5. CONLUSION Establishing a collective defense system within the ASEAN will not be an easy job. There will be many obstacles towards the path: socio-cultural divisions, lingering tensions over unresolved territorial feuds, and differing levels of threat perceptions dims the prospects of turning the organization into a formal military pact.10 But as highlighted earlier, the pressing need of military cooperation in the light of the Chinese threat can override the said obstacles. The support of extra-regional powers like Japan and the US will be vital to the success of the proposal. The U.S. who is trying to preserve its hegemony and Japan who is currently involved in a territorial dispute with China over the Senkaku islands, will likely support the advancement of the ASEAN into a collective defense organization considering the political advantage they will be able to reap from it. International feedback will also play a significant role in the success or failure of proposal. The approval (or disapproval) of the international community will greatly affect the progress and future of an ASEAN collective defense system. But what matters most is the 10 Sokolsky, R., Rabasa A., & Neu, C. R. 2001, pp. 45-47 reaction of China and its allies. A strong negative response from the aforementioned can easily plunge the region into a state of cold war— a possible outcome that is extremely contrary to the aims of the proposal. (Word count: 1679) Bilbliography: Books: ï‚ · Franklin, John K. (2006). The Hollow Pact: Pacific Security and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization. ProQuest. ISBN 978-0-542-91563-5. ï‚ · Leifer, Michael (2005). Chin Kin Wah, Leo Suryadinata. ed. Michael Leifer: Selected Works on Southeast Asia. ISBN 978-981-230-270-0. ï‚ · Sokolsky, R., Rabasa A. & Neu, C. R. (2001) The Role of Southeast Asia in U.S. Strategy Toward China. ISBN/EAN 0-8330-2893-6. Encylopedias: ï‚ · Encyclopaedia Britannica (India) (2000). Students’ Britannica India, Volume Five. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. Journals: ï‚ · Holsti, K. J. (1970). National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy. International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 3 (Sep., 1970), pp. 233-309 Websites: ï‚ · Inernational Crisis Group (July 24, 2012). Stirring up the South China Sea (II): Regional Responses. Retrieved February 16, 2013, from: http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/asia/north-east-asia/china/229-stirring-up-thesouth-china-sea-ii-regional-responses.aspx ï‚ · The Official Website of the Republic of the Philippines – Department of Foreign Affairs. Philippine Foreign Policy. 11 August 2009. Retrieved February 16, 2013, from: http://www.dfa.gov.ph/index.php/about-the-dfa/philippine-foreign-policy

A Little Bit of Stress Is Useful

â€Å"A little bit of stress is useful – it keeps people in their toes. † Discuss. In order to answer this question one must first define the various elements in the question. Stress can be defined as ‘The harmful physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements of the job do not match the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker’ . One can define useful, as stress making a person happy, productive and efficient. Also in terms of an organisation making it successful, efficient and effective. You should use more industrial words here eg producing more units Millions of people suffer from stress on a daily basis. Stress can affect a person’s physical health such as increased heart rate and rise in blood pressure, and can affect a person mentally such as depression. This in turn for organisations can be devastating and potentially detrimental, as this can lead to poor industrial relations and high absenteeism, ‘IHC estimates that 13. 4 million working days a year are lost to stress’. On the face of it this would suggest that stress is indeed a bad thing. Indeed a study reported in the Journal of the American Medical Association showed that those participants who experienced chronic high stress on the job had a considerably greater chance of suffering another heart attack than did those in less stressful jobs. Furthermore there were many cases in world war one of sudden deaths to soldiers who had not endured any wounds, these men probably died of shock when responding to stress. In 1967 Holmes and Rahe carried out a study now called the stress scale where they looked at 5,000 medical patients’ medical records as a way to determine specifically which stressful events caused illnesses, in hierarchical order from the most stressful events to the least. Death of a spouse topped the list followed by, divorce, martial separation and a jail sentence. All these events are intrinsically negative and as such it would be easy to conclude that stress is bad for anyone as it is caused by bad events. However Hooshmand conversely states that ‘stress is just another misunderstood term in the medical practice’ he goes on to say that ‘the phrase any stress is bad (is) nothing further from the truth’. Indeed Lazarus mentions how ‘Hans Selyve suggested two types (of stress) distress and eustress. Distress is the destructive stress illustrated by anger and aggression and it is said to damage health. Eustress is the constructive type, illustrated by emotions associated with emphatic concerns for others†¦ ompatible with or protective of good health’ This is significant, according to Selyve and Lazarus there is, as mentioned above, a ‘distress’ type of stress which is bad- this is where there is too much stress. For example if a manager were to give a deadline which was impossible this may over stimulate and de motivate an employee causing them to do no work. But also mentioned is a ‘eustress’ type of stress which can be seen as ‘useful’ and healthy ‘keeping people on their toes’. This would be where there are small amounts of stress for example if a manager was to set a strict but reasonable deadline it may push the employee on to work harder, stimulating an increasing the employees energy levels to meet the challenge . This shall be mentioned in more detail later on in the essay. Although Lazarus goes on to mention that this hypothesis ‘has not been adequately supported†¦. by empirical research’ there is other evidence to support this claim of eustress. In 1908 Robert M. Yerkes and J. D. Dodson created an experiential relationship between performance and pressure, now known as ‘Yerkes-Dodson Law ’. The law shows that performance actually increases with pressure i. e. stress: the eustress that Selyve went on about, but only up to a point. When levels of pressure become too high, performance decreases, this is known as distress. The process is illustrated graphically as a rounded, inverted U-shaped curve which increases and then decreases with higher levels of pressure. Clearly according to this law one wants to reach the optimum stress levels which is small amounts of stress to keep one on its toes but not too much as this could lead to depression and potentially heart problems. It is now important to look at specifically how eustress can help and be healthy for you. From ‘Yerkes-Dodson Law’ it would not be unreasonable to suggest that eustress is basically stress in small, not large amounts. Leitnerpg states that ‘according to Allen 1983 eustress represents challenge and stimulation for healthy growth and development’ this would suggest that eustress stress gives you the competitive edge roviding you with focus and determination. There are many examples above of stressors likely to produce distress such as divorce but Leitner mentions stressors which produce eustress such as ‘roller coasters and skiing’ It is important to note that people are actually paying for these stressors, thus they can be considered us eful stresses. Some people even thrive on the excitement of stresses this can be best shown in adrenaline junkies, as they seek activities that increase their hormone adrenaline production. Examples of these stress seekers include racing car drivers, politicians and bungee jumpers. It is well known that many employees will leave there work to the last minute they need the stress and adrenaline to get their work done, if there is no stress it is probable this work would never be done. Indeed it is possible to have stressors which can cause both eustress and distress such as exercise, which can be considered a eustress, but when overdone can lead to injuries and illness. Selye points out that ‘whether an activity produces eustress or distress depends on the participant’s perception of the activity’ this can be supported by a quote from Shakespeare ‘things are neither good nor bad, but thinking makes them so’ . Indeed everyone is different when dealing with stress whether stress is good or bad for someone depends on that person. This can be supported by Type A and B personality theory created in the 1950’s . This puts people into two groups . Type A people are according to Friedman, M. & Rosenman ‘impatient, excessively time-conscious, insecure about their status, highly competitive, hostile aggressive, and incapable of relaxation’ . They established a link between type A people and coronary heart disease after analysing data from thousands of people who had beforehand been placed into either type A or Type B group. Whilst type B people are almost the opposite of type A people, relaxed in nature with no sense of time urgency and less easily stressed. Quote The above evidence would suggest that the amount of stress does not matter to a great extent but what does is the type of person as, according to this theory there are two types of people, type A personalities will deal worse with stress than type B personalities. It would not be unreasonable to suggest that a small amount of stress for type B personalities maybe good for that person ensuring they are focused and have more of a sense of time urgency, however the same amount of stress mposed on a type A personality could caused aggravation, anxiety and maybe even heart problems. Indeed some employers will look for employees who not only can naturally deal with stress but actually thrive on it. An example of this can be given of Alan Sugar who makes it clear in the program the apprentice that he is looking for people who can deal with stressful situations by testing them as part of the recruitment process . An essential part of the recruitment procedure is to be able to keep your nerve and defend yourself in the public forum of the board room, an artificially created stressful environment. In this day and age there is bound to be stress due to the nature of work and the fast moving environment around us, it is how we deal with this stress which can determine whether this stress is useful or not. ‘Yerkes-Dodson Law’ dictates that if there is too much stress this can reduce the performance of the individual, thus it is sometimes important for the individual to be able to reduce this stress in order to produce optimal performance. Indeed Ward states that ‘in learning to manage stress effectively you may come to believe that the experiences of stressful periods may become beneficial to you. There are many different ways of dealing with stress and how well you deal with stress will determine how it affects you. A person can exercise to help reduce stress, ‘exercise creates a sense of confidence and control, which reduces stress’ this does not mean just occasional exercise but exercise on a daily basis if possible. Exercise also directly leads to relaxation of the body which can help reduce stress. Having the required sleeping hours is also vital, this will refresh yourself making you feel better the next morning and ready for work. If one does not have the required sleeping hours necessary it can lead to tiredness which can lead directly to stress. So far mainly people and employees have been looked upon, it is important to look at how organisations as a whole deal with stress and if they find it useful or not. Organisations are becoming more and more aware of the importance of stress and its impact on employees. Ward mentions some ways in which companies are taking action to combat stress ‘more are referring employees for health and fitness tests. Others are running stress management courses and providing stress counselling for employees’ . In view of this one can clearly see how important stress is in organisations. Some company’s thrive on stress these mainly seem to be financial orientated organisations. Who are and need to be extremely competitive with other similar organisations, this stress pushes the organisation on to its limits increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of the company. It is not uncommon nowadays for organisations to deliberately impose stress on employees; this can be done by paying employees with high commissions, meaning they are not guaranteed money at all. Some employees actually enjoy this stress, they enjoy the challenge and the buzz. Indeed this can be directly linked to job satisfaction. Other organisations in the health field such as hospitals try to reduce stress, as they feel any stress imposed on patients could be dangerous, one of the things they do to reduce stress is painting the hospital walls green as it is proven that green is a low stress colour can decrease stress. Clearly in the health field stress is deemed as bad but maybe in the financial field stress is seen as useful pushing on the company to success. Thus the usefulness of stress depends upon which type of organisation it’s for. Obviously though too much stress in a financial organisation can cause absenteeism which will ultimately lose the company money. To conclude with regards to organisations as a whole, it just depends on the type of organisation to how useful stress is. In terms of individuals, small amounts of stress which Selye describes as eustress can help keep people on their toes, keeping them focused and acting as a stimulant, pushing them on to work. However it can completely depend on the person. A Type A person may not be able to take that stress and instead of ‘keeping them on their toes’ may cause panic and anxiety. Nonetheless, in saying this, as Yerkes-Dodson law dictates some stress is needed to achieve optimum performance and give people a challenge, which increases job satisfaction. Thus it would be accurate to conclude that ‘a little bit of stress is useful – it keeps people on their toes’. You would improve the structure if you cross reference more eg when you are talking about how stress needs to be in the right quantity, it might be helpful if you mention that later on you will be talking about how stress an be controlled. If you need to add any more – you could talk further about the work life balance – ie however stressful the job – outside activities are essential A further element you could talk about – when discussing different personalities – is that what is stressful for some is not for oth ers. A good example might be of mothers who stay at home and look after children – for some this is v stressful and for others it is an ideal environment. You could also add an international dimension eg in France there is huge job security and longer holidays (I think) in America holidays are short and there is v little job security

In the Name of Identity Summary

In Amin Maalouf’s book â€Å"In the Name of Identity† Maalouf emphasizes that we should not judge people on one singular identity. He argues that, â€Å"Identity can’t be compartmentalized. You can’t divide it up into halves or thirds or any other separate segments. I haven’t got several identities: I’ve got just one, made up of many components in mixture that is unique to me, just as other people’s identity is unique to them as individuals. † The essence of Maalouf’s argument is that one should not define another based solely on a singular component of their identity but rather their identity as a whole.In chapter one, Maalouf suggest that, â€Å"†¦ People commit crime nowadays in the name of religious, ethnic, national, or some other kind of identity. † Massacres, racial discrimination, and holocausts have all been done in the name of defending a single component of ones identity. Maalouf makes a valid point when he writes, â€Å"What’s known as an identity card carries the holder’s family name, given name, date and place of birth, photograph, a list of certain physical features, the holder’s signature and sometimes also his fingerprints. Proving that society as a whole selects individual components of their identity to define themselves. According to Maalouf, identity is defined as,†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦A number of elements, and these are clearly not restricted to the particulars set down in official records. Of course, for the great majority these factors include allegiance to a religious tradition; to a nationality – sometimes two; to a profession, an institution, or a particular social milieu. But the list is much longer than that; it is virtually unlimited. † Maalouf celebrates the fact that identity is extremely complex.Each person has a single identity, although each identity is made up of many components, causing not one to be the same. In chapter two Maalouf tries to examine his own identity. Maalouf claims he is not trying to find one singular part of his identity to define himself but rather find instances that define him. Maalouf admits, â€Å"As you may imagine, my object is not to discover within myself some essential allegiance in which I may recognize my self. Rather the opposite: I scour my memory to find as many ingredients of my identity as I can. Throughout chapter two Maalouf goes into great detail about what defines him. He clearly states that it is not one component, for instance coming from an Arab background and being a Christian. He does not deny himself of either identity, but instead embraces them both. Maalouf claims that the more allegiances one has the rarer one’s identity is. He clearly states, â€Å"Every one of my allegiance links me to a large number of people, But the more ties I have the rarer and more particular my own identity becomes. Towards the end of chapter two he claimes society gene ralizes and puts individual components of ones identity and judges them based solely on that single component. Maalouf complicates matters further when he writes, â€Å"We blithely express sweeping judgments on a whole peoples, calling them â€Å"hardworking† and â€Å"ingenious,† or â€Å"lazy,† â€Å"touchy,† â€Å"sly,† â€Å"proud,† or â€Å"obstinate. † He claims that these judgments often lead to bloodshed. In chapter three maalouf states, â€Å"Identity isn’t given once and for all: it is build up and changes throughout a person’s lifetime. The essence of Maalouf’s argument is our identity changes over time and different components are added everyday, changing our identity as a whole. He gives a great example of an African baby born in New York, compared to if it was born in Lagos, Pretoria, or Launda. The child would have completely different experiences by the age of 10, and each experience would drasti cally change its identity. Maalouf also argues that people view themselves by the allegiance that is most threatened. Thus, the reason Maalouf believes killers are made.He argues that, â€Å"We have only the events of the last few years to see what any human community that feels humiliated or fears for its existence will tend to produce killers. † It his human nature to defend one’s self when feeling threatened. Maalouf agrees when he says, â€Å"There is a Mr. Hyde inside each of us. What we have to do is prevent the conditions occurring that will bring the monster forth. † In conclusion Maalouf urges us to prevent our selves from generalizing each other based on a single component of one’s identity. He argues that this will prevent wars, murders, and holocausts.

Family Life Education Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Family Life Education - Assignment Example Family education needs to begin by changing inequal and unfair family dynamics along gender lines, embracing alternate conceptions and providing people with the tools to manage conflicts. To be clear, I am not assuming that all families must be the same. Polygamous families with multiple wives or husbands, polyamorous couples with children who have open sexual relationships, gay families who adopt children, cohabitating couples that don't want to get married... moral or religious considerations aside, all of these family structures need support and protection. It's in no one's interests to have a broken family, no matter what kind of family it is. This is where family education and family therapy needs to start: Putting aside normative judgments about what families should do and instead give people goals to identify and solve their own problems. Like all good education and psychology, the Pygmalion effect has to be avoided: We can't change people into what they want; we can only help them be better at doing what they want. Allen and Baber (1992) argue that family education has to embrace feminist theory to work. They point out that many of the fundamental conflicts between people are informed by gender norms and patriarchy: â€Å"[F]eminist analyses reveal the detrimental and often devastating effects that traditional family roles, economic exploitation, and social inequalities have on women's health and general well-being† (Allen and Baber, 1992, p. 1). And it's not just women who suffer. Indirectly, patriarchy and gender inequality cause cascading effects: Women are unhappy and stressed, so they can't find satisfaction and happiness, so they pursue outside romance or affairs or divorce their husbands, which in turn harms children. Directly, patriarchy creates artificial and misguided assessments about the roles men, children and women should and do perform that never made much sense and make absolutely no sense now. The Leave It to Beaver model of an a uthoritarian father, supportive mother and obedient children is not the way most people choose to live their lives. Family educators thus need to be educated and trained to understand these kind of persistent inequalities, recognize them when they occur and deal with them. A great example is found in the second shift and in maternity leave (Hochschild, 2003; Wise, 2008). The second shift is when women have to work eight hours at work just like men. This is because the change in the economy has made it so people have to have two breadwinners to make ends meet. Ironically, feminist successes at getting women into careers didn't precipitate changes in underlying family structures and distributions of work: Instead, women work eight hours a day at a job then another eight hours a day at home, doing domestic work. It's true that men do pick up some of the slack, but never in a really consistent way according to Hochschild's (2003) research. Similarly, women get put into a â€Å"mommy tr ack† not because they don't want to work but because it's impossible to imagine having their husbands take more time off work. â€Å"Unless the social structure supports shared sacrifice, sacrifice will end up being made by those with the least institutional power, irrespective of one’s personal desires† (Wise, 2008). In the United States, men don't receive paternity leave, so

Decision Analysis for the US Army Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Decision Analysis for the US Army - Essay Example Analytical decisions are undertaken when there is ample time to compare the facets, in order to choose the most profitable course of direction. The best module amongst the alternatives is taken (See appendix). In this case the supply of weapons is done from the highest bidder and of the best quality. Decision trees This is a tool that allocates data for decision making in form of tree in order to analyze the variable hence make the decision. The tool breaks down the data in logical and simple manner thus easy to understand. Any mistakes made in the data translate to the tree model. Each nodule of the tree represents an attribute, the branches corresponds to an attribute while each leaf assigns a classification. The module is very simple to use and interpret and it can handle both numerical and categorical data. The decision trees can be used for validation analysis as other statistical approach follows (Andrew, 2005). The simple illustration below describes the case of buying or maki ng weapons. A decision is made after thoroughly considering all the uncertainties involved then a decision is made. Cost factor can be used to make the decision and the manufacturing option would be adopted. Nonetheless, other factors need to be considered in real situation analysis e.g. quality, time taken etc. Illustration one: A variable is an element of a problem that is being predicted or determines it. They may change depending on the scope of the problem being analysed. Predictable variables are used to assess the certain conditions while unpredictable variables follow uncertainties hence probability is used. Variables are used in decision analysis to represent value or symbol of the actual attribute being determined. A variable denoted by Y may represent the cost estimates, overheads, revenues etc. When one value of a variable is related to another value of a variable, then the case is said to a correlation between the two variables. Correlation means an inter-relationship. A simple linear regression model is a statistical technique that explores the inter-relations between two or more variables. Linear regression tools have applied in many organisations to forecast for the observed variables. The military may want to determine whether there is a relationship between warring period and weapons use. To do so, the observed data is analysed and the simple line equation is used. Y=a+bx Y in this case represents number weapons used during war X variable shows the number the war reoccurs A and b are constants Table one weapons Time period lasted during the Wars 100000 1 year World war I 300000 1 year World war II 250000 2 years’ War in Afghanistan 85000 1 year War in Kuwait The equation is then extend to determine a and b i.e. 100,000= a+ 1b 250,000=a+2b -150,000= -b 150,000= b Then a=100,000-1b = 100000-150,000 = -50,000 If we were to determine the occurrence of world war III will take 3 years, then the number of weapons needed are: Y=a+bx = -50,000 + 150,000*3 =400,000 weapons The simple regression analysis can be determined by plotting a graph using the same variable to obtain the line of best fit. This can be then be used to forecast on future needs of weapon acquisition for the military. The relationship between the period the war takes the higher the number of weapons needed. The relationship is linear. This model works best when there are two variables under consideration. Scatter diagrams are used to analyze

Legalizing marijuana can help economy and people with their illness Research Paper

Legalizing marijuana can help economy and people with their illness like cance ,hiv, multiple sclerosis or chronic pain - Research Paper Example And, since users do not fear prosecution and are not stigmatized, they are more likely to seek treatment, which is an added bonus. Plus, criminalizing marijuana causes many problems - a drain of resources and manpower used to fight the war on the drug; the drain of not realizing tax revenue from the drug; and the loss of revenue that can be used to do research on the medicinal properties of the drug. Because of these problems, coupled with the fact that Portugal shows that our country does not need to fear that legalizing drugs will result in a substantial increase in drug use, legalization is the best idea for marijuana. The body of this paper will describe the problems with prohibition, then show the Portugal example, show the benefits of legalization, then come to a conclusion. The Controlled Substances Act has classified marijuana as a Schedule I substance, which makes it subject to the highest level of governmental control (Duncan, 2009, p. 1703). One of the reasons for this restriction is that marijuana is commonly thought of as a â€Å"gateway drug† – in other words, users of marijuana often get involved with harder drugs (Duncan, 2009, p. 1705). Other reasons are that prohibition allegedly â€Å"reduces marijuana trafficking and use, thereby discouraging crime, improving productivity and increasing health† (Miron, 2003, p. 1). Current drug policy punishes users and distributors alike. The reason why users are punished are because they ostensibly inflict harm on others; inflict harm on himself; that marijuana makes users â€Å"unproductive members of society† and that marijuana use is immoral (Blumenson & Nilsen, 2009, p. 6). According to Duncan (2009), billions of federal budgetary dollars have been committed to combatting marijuana distribution and usage, with this budget growing every year. In 2009, the budget for combatting all drugs was $14.1

The meal experience Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The meal experience - Assignment Example This area houses padded stools and benches around bars and a variety of tables. Warm, gleaming natural wood paneling accents the space, along with tiffany lighting, mirrors, signs and local artifacts on the walls. Hand-written signs above the bar list current menu offerings and specials. The dining areas offer a lighter, brighter contrast to the pub lounge. One dining area presents neutral tones, tiled floors, a fireplace, and complementary dà ©cor. Brick walls lead to another area with inviting wood flooring and additional privacy resulting from stained glass dividers. If the weather permits, the beer garden at the back of the establishment offers a grill for barbecue, with picnic tables and umbrellas to allow guests to enjoy the fresh air as part of their dining experience. All areas of the establishment are clean and appear to be well-maintained. The dà ©cor, use of local artifacts, comfortable seating, and organization of the restaurant lay the foundation for an excellent dining experience. Nothing in the setting detracts from the meal; everything is complementary, and the environment invites the guests to relax and enjoy themselves. The staff of The Fatted Calf supports this invitation to relax. From the initial greeting, throughout all courses, and into the end of the meal, the staff was very patient and nice. They answered all of our questions thoroughly, were personable, and maintained an exemplary level of service that allowed us to focus on the meal. Of particular note is the head chef and co-owner, Feargal O’Donnell, who created the original menu and attended us personally throughout the meal. Chef O’Donnell explained the menu in detail, emphasizing the use of local and artisan ingredients where possible in all of the dishes in the restaurant. This practice ensures freshness, while generating good will for the establishment. Our sample menu included Donald Russell Irish

Pathophysiology of diverticulitis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pathophysiology of diverticulitis - Essay Example The exact pathogenesis of diverticulitis is yet unknown (Hobson and Roberts, 2004). An insight into the structural changes in the diverticular disease has been found through studies on various postmortem and surgical specimens (Sheth et al, 2008). Initially, gastroenterologists proposed that a fecolith obstructing an abscessed diverticulum led to diverticulitis. However, in 1976, Sethbhakdi reported that studies on resected sigmoid diverticulitis specimens failed to support fecolith based pathogenesis theory. Infact, according to the author, these studies found perforation of the fundus of the diverticulum associated with pericolic or peridiverticular inflammmation in the resected specimens (Sethbhakdi, 1976). Also, 30 percent of the specimens showed no features of inflammation, but showed thickening of the intestinal wall (Sethbhakdi, 1976). The thickened and contracted colon part is known as mychosis. Mychosis was initially thought to be due to muscular hypertrophy. But now, it is understood to be due to elastin deposition and shortening of the bowel. Elastin deposition is thought to be due to increased uptake of a specific substance called proline from the Western diets (Sheth et al, 2008). ... Smaller perforations get covered by the pericolic fat. However, larger perforations can lead to other complications like abscess formation, rupture of intestine, fistula formation and peritonitis (Crowe et al, 2011). Fistulas can occur with other adjacent organs or with skin. The most common fistulas in men are colorectal fistulas. Fistulas are uncommon in women (Crowe et al, 2011). In population from the Western countries, the diverticula, especially in the colonic regions are "pseudo diverticula" because, the diverticula involve only the mucosal layer and submucosal layer and not the muscular and serosal layers (Sheth et al, 2008). There is whopping evidence that such pseudodiverticuli occur because of diets that are low in fibre. Among Asian population, the diverticuli are true diverticula (Sheth et al, 2008). They involve all the layers of the intestine and they are mainly seen in the proximal colonic region, unlike pseudo diverticuli which are seen in the distal colon, mainly th e sigmoid colon (Sheth et al, 2008). Decreased dietary fiber leads to low-volume stools which alter the motility of colon, causing increased luminal pressures. Such high pressures occur when the sigmoid colon undergoes a process called segmentation during smooth muscle contraction. Segmentation leads to distinct compartments of the sigmoid colon. When the stool volume is low, segmentation is exaggerated and the elevated intrasegmental pressures are transmitted across the colonic wall leading to the development of diverticula (Sheth et al, 2008). Typically diverticuli occur at weak points in the intestinal wall like points where vasa recti penetrate the smooth muscle of the intestine (Sheth et al,

Gun Control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Gun Control - Essay Example There are several points and reasoning about the article that needs to be straightened out. The most disturbing is the justification that calling for gun control is not about the Second Amendment. They are already contradiction in terms and yet it was still used as a justification. The second fallacious argument that was used that also needs to be refuted is the argument that of U.S. Education Secretary Arne Duncan during the assembly of marchers that "This is about gun responsibility; this is about gun safety; this is about fewer dead Americans, fewer dead children" (Martinez and Scmidt) while it is being hinged on the premise that "More guns? More violence" and "Hey La Pierre. How about this? Keep the Bad guy from even getting a gun!" (in respose to NRA CEO Wayne Lapierre statement as "the only thing that stops a bad guy with a gun is a good guy with a gun") (Martinez and Scmidt). Gun control was being called upon in the demonstration as the solution to end violence because it is t hought of as tool of violence, it being a weapon that can indeed harm, mutilate and even kill an individual. The advocates and marchers of this solution posit that if the tools or weapons that were used in those crimes and incidence of violence did not become available, then violence will be reduced. While this may seem to be a plausible solution to reducing violence, gun control may pose a problem of infringing on our basic rights as Americans to bear arms as stated in the Second Amendment of the Bill of Rights contained in the Constitution of the United States of America which was negated during the march for gun control by saying that it was not about the Second Amendment. It is because the moment that gun control is cited, it already an attempt to abridge a right that is guaranteed in the Second Amendment is disturbing. If one will subscribe to the reasoning of the advocates of gun control, it was as if gun ownership is equated to evil and that it does not do anything good excep t perpetuate violence. Under this unreasonable onslaught, it would be important to cite how guns played in the creation of America to refute the argument that it evil and that the people we esteemed in history were in fact gun owners. Those who crafted our Constitution and laid the foundation of this country were even said to be gun aficionados. The venerable George Washington, the first President of this Republic was even a general who had guns and men under his command. And he was never accused of violence neither was there a slightest instance that those guns were used to inflict violence and unnecessary force. Those guns that he had were instead and in fact used to liberate and unite this country from the invading forces until our country became what it is today. Without guns, our country would still have been under British rule because we had no weapons to fight and repeal them. And George Washington is not an exception to those who owned a gun that never had the slightest semb lance of violence. Most founding fathers of this country were bearer of arms and almost every major historical event in this country that led to what it is today also involved guns. Imagine the Alamo when its defenders are without guns or Abraham Lincoln struggle to end slavery when his army did not have the firearms to assert his political will to end slavery against the

Life in Plymouth Colony Essay Example for Free

Life in Plymouth Colony Essay The book of John Demos on â€Å"A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony† explores on the concept of the family life in the context of the Plymouth Colony. In particular, it tends to describe the ways of life of the people in the Plymouth Colony specifically the aspect of family, which is the smallest unit of the society. Through this book review, one will be able to determine the true accounts of the social life and customs of the people in the Plymouth Colony. Basically, the book is dedicated into furthering the importance of the smallest and most intimates of all group environments- the family. This concept has been usually left out by experts and historians alike wherein their interest is focused on the larger units of social actions. This includes the region, the class, the party, the ethnic as well as the religious group. Most of the time, the unit of family is left with the behavioral science which includes the anthropology, sociology and psychology. In order to examine the behavior of the Plymouth Colony in a family setting, the author has to descend on the local level which is considered as almost personal history. As such, one has to know average people in the everyday routine of their lives, in order to begin to understand their behavior in a family setting. In this way, the author was able to successfully present a picture of the family in the Plymouth Colony rather than any single instance thereof. Different aspects of the family setting of the Plymouth Colony have been discussed in the book. The author started with providing a historical survey on the Plymouth Colony. Among the various aspects of family setting mentioned in the book are physical setting, the structure of the household and the themes of individual development. More specifically, the physically setting deals with the elements of housing, furnishing and clothing. On the structure of household, it consists of the husbands and wives, membership, parents and children and, masters and servants. Lastly, the themes of individual development involve the infancy and childhood, coming of age as well as late years. With the examination on the different aspects of the Plymouth Colony’s family setting, the author has come to realized that the family life in Plymouth was not at all unique. This is because of the evident similarities of the colony with other American colonies. More specifically, the similarity between the Plymouth Colony and other American colonies reside in the embrace of the term â€Å"Puritanism†. As such, it can be claimed that the family is, after all, an extremely fundamental and durable institution: it often provides a kind of common denominator, or baseline, for a whole culture whose various parts may differ substantially in other respects. Plymouth Colony has been known as the Old Colony and sometimes, the New Colony. It has been said that this colony is founded by the â€Å"Pilgrims† in 1620. In particular, the â€Å"Pligrims† are defined as the group of religious people which consists of adults as well as family groupings. They were English separatists from New England. They were famous on their sailing away from Europe to New America during the early 17th century in order to search for a home where they could freely practice their Puritan style of religion and live according to their own laws. Orginally, the â€Å"Pilgrims’ are English Puritans who broke away from the Church of England because they felt that it had not completed the work of the Reformation. Because of this, they committed themselves to a life based on the Bible. Most of the members of the â€Å"Pilgrims† are the poorly educated people, farmers and people without political and social standing. (â€Å"Chapter 2: The English Transplantations – People/Term†, 2007) Consequently, the arrival of the â€Å"Pilgrims† in the New World is illustrated by the following lines below: â€Å"Being thus arrived in a good harbor, and brought safe to land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of Heaven, who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries thereof, again to set their feet on the firm and stable earth, their proper element. † (Demos, 1971) During their stay in North America, the â€Å"Pilgrims† manifested their views on Puritanism, especially on the way they deal with one another. Through these dealings, it is found out that the repression on the Puritans was not as strongly directed against sexuality as against the expression of hostile and aggressive impulses. Moreover, this evident on the prevalent modes of family life as well as child-rearing. More specifically, the book shows that even from the very start, the family of the Plymouth Colony was nuclear. This family characteristic has been unchanged even from the beginning of their settlement. Specifically, the family consists of one couple and their own children formed the core of each household with the addition in some cases of an aged grandparent or â€Å"servant†. And during these times, the life in the households was much less segmented. However, despite this physical arrangement, the roles and responsibilities of the members of the family are almost the same as today. In this colony, there is a much tighter line of authority between the parent and the child. And the range of functions performed by the family includes material, psychological, social, and otherwise. Above all, the system of family life revolves around the fulfillment of certain basic needs as well as universal needs. These need comprise of the food, shelter and sexual release. Furthermore, the family in the Plymouth Colony setting is likened to different things and institutions. Particularly, the family is described as a â€Å"business†, â€Å"school†, â€Å"vocational institute†, the â€Å"church†, â€Å"house of correction† and as a â€Å"welfare institution†. As a business, the family is the central agency of economic production and exchange. As a school, the parents and the masters are obliged to attend to the educational needs of the children. As a vocational institute, there is a need to apply the knowledge and skills on the larger economic system. As a church, there is an obligation for â€Å"family worship†. Lastly, on the welfare institution, the family usually provides welfare services such as the presence of the hospital or even orphanage. Indeed, the findings on the book of John Demos create awareness on the true nature of the people from the Plymouth Colony. Moreover, it contributes to the strengthening on the American culture and history. In fact, it serves as one of the foundations of the family life of the American people. Undoubtedly, there is only little difference between the family of the Plymouth Colony and the modern-day American family. As such, the study of the ways and customs of the family on the Plymouth Colony proves the resemblance of families between the ancient colonies and the modern societies. Works Cited Demos, John. A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971. Chapter 2: The English Transplantations – People/Term. 2 July 2007. http://www. cvhs. com/CVHS%20Inet/academics/history/apus/ch2. html.

Can Facebook Privacy be Trusted?

Can Facebook Privacy be Trusted? DISSERTATION PROPOSAL Dissertation Question: Facebook privacy: IS IT TO BE TRUSTED? View the full dissertation here 1. Introduction The world has changed; it has become more public than private (Kirkpatrick et al., 2010). The likes of Social Media has become an outlet that nobody can ignore, its features, characteristics and convenience encapsulates all that is needed for any walk of life chosen by an individual. Of course with the undying support for social media, especially Facebook, one has to ask his or herself, is it to trusted? Is my information being kept privately like they said it is? Some believe it is however some feel that is far safe. However, this study is going to give a clear-cut decision as to what the majority think and why. Of course, there is no right or wrong answer, and there is the likelihood that this study may not affect the broader picture, but it will give clarity and I think that is necessary.As supposed to concentrating on Social Media as a general platform this study will revolve around Facebook only so as to have a more tailored and focussed reading. I have chosen Facebook, because this is the Social Media outlet that revolutionised all those that were to follow. The physiological as well as sociological impacts will be ostracised, this will look at how Facebook affects the attitudes and body/verbal language of individuals. Last but not leady corporate governance will be looked at; this will test how Facebook is in line it at all with corporate governance codes Both sides of the arguments will be welcomed with reasons for balance and recommendation will be ushered as to how Facebook could become the safe zone that everyone urges for. 2. Brief Literature Review DOES PRIVACY EXIST IN FACEBOOK? Human beings are defined as social beings meaning they thrive through interpersonal interaction. This interaction comes with sharing of information to build relations. However, the information should never come from a third party. In the ancient years, this was something very easy to ensure due to the existent media of communication at the time (Eric, 2007). However, the technological realm has improved immensely by coming up with communication channels that traverse geographical distance and enhance communication convenience. Today, using social media one can easily communicate with any person in any corner of the planet and with this convenience comes the risk of third party infringement in the communication process (Fogel & Nehmad, 2009). Facebook is probably the most used social media platform in the world meaning it is a powerhouse for information and the highest in risk when it comes to privacy hence raising concerns as to whether this online platform is to be trusted. Privacy concerns Facebooks policy       Facebook gives users the chance to make sure that what they share does not end up in the wrong hands. This is made sure using the above meters. Additionally, a users information is made safe from misuse by using the companys data policy as a blue print (Liu, Gummadi, Krishnamurthy, & Mislove, 2011). Although, they collect all information shared on the media such as messages, financial information and images the company maintains that this information all goes towards enhancing the user experience by making the entire communication process more convenient (Boyd & Hargittai, 2010). At the end of the day Facebook is business venture. Although users do not pay anything in order to enjoy the application, the management have to pay the brains behind the creation. This is made possible through advertising which has evolved greatly because of the information collected about users (Raynes-Goldie, 2012). Just like sites like google use cookies to learn your online pattern, Facebook accesses information about the users in order to enhance personalized advertising. Who is at fault However, although they collect information the company does not really infringe on the rights of the individual. It is the users ignorance or lack of knowledge of the privacy feature that induces the privacy concerns (Bedi, 2013). It has been said that there is no secret between two people, so the moment one shares something on Facebook, they should know that the information is visible to all their friends. To protect the privacy of the shared information, Facebook advices one to only accept friend requests of those people they know (Statt, 2013). Additionally, today most employers do not seek out members of staff the traditional way, today they seek them out socially, this includes using their social media sites to look for information about them (Ostrow, 2009). Social media is a platform where people think they can share most of the things they cannot in their day to day conversations. Furthermore, it is an avenue where people can take on any character they want (Liu, Gummadi, Krishnamurthy, & Mislove, 2011). However, what one shares speaks volumes to those people on your friends list or anyone who is interested to see your activities online more so to a prospective employer. An employer may stumble on a post that may not really augur well with him or her and hence cost one a job opportunity. Therefore, for one an individual can control what they share to ensure they do not share anything another person may deem inappropriate (Warren, 2013). On the plus side is that its policy outline that the information they collect does not find its way to a third party, something they have proved time and again by incorporating more and more measures that spearhead their data policy (Zilles, 2017). On the other hand, an individual should quit being oblivious of the privacy policies they can enforce on the contents they share. This way even if an employer was to stumble upon their account, they cannot get to see their posts (Hoffman, 2012). This gives the individual a level ground where they can compete with those eying the same position on several fronts where social media posts is not one of them. On this note, I take a stance that Facebook privacy can be trusted at all costs and that it is the users who need to learn how to use them to their advantage (Warfel, 2008). 3. Methodology My chosen approach will be a combination of primary research and secondary research. These will be a mix of qualitative and quantitative data and also secondary research from journals, books, articles ect. My topic may sound clichà © and too common, but there are many unanswered questions surrounding this topic that still make it an entertaining and intriguing to read about and because of this there are many objectives that need to be requited. These objectives will be direct, and informative but most importantly will leave room scrutiny and constructive criticism, after all there is no right or wrong answer. Research questions are as follows: To what extent has Facebook bewitched individuals to believe that is safe. What evidence is there to show that Facebook is safe What evidence is there to show that Facebook isnt safe How does Facebooks productivity and performance affect the attitude of individuals If Facebook isnt safe how at tall how does that breach the code of corporate governance How can Facebook make it better Primary research aim: To prove if at all Facebook is an outlet to be trusted and why. In order to do justice to the objectives data collection will be done via questionnaire that will be sent out over a specific period of time to a specific target audience of about 50 or more people. This will be the bases of my primary data, but the formation will mostly derive from credible sources of secondary data, namely: the guardian, telegraph and electric forums (Survey Monkey). This all will be emulated to create a constructive argument. The biggest advantage is that I am surrounded by people of the same age group from different cultures, backgrounds, ages, points of views that use outlets such as Facebook, many may not use it at all which again gives room for a smorgasbord of ideas that are at my disposal. This will make my primary data concrete, accurate and give it a sense of validity. Since Facebook is a global company, information will gathered globally and not only from London or the UK, this allows leverage and gives more to talk about. In terms of target audience, since people of all ages use Facebook my data will not only be focussed on the younger generation but older and this is where secondary data comes in use. If done appropriately the objective and overall dissertation should be answered. 4. Time Scale For the dissertation when it comes to time scale it should take me no more than 2 weeks to gather all the data that I will need for my dissertation. One week will be in order to research my topic question and gather all the secondary data that I will need and the other week will be in order to carry out the questionnaires and focus groups or one to one interviews. Overall, I have a time scale which I would like to meet which is as follows: Gather Secondary Data One week Hand out Questionnaires and Data Analysis One Week Have a dissertation draft done 02-Apr Finalise Dissertation 20-Apr Proof Read Dissertation 20-30 April Submit Dissertation Final 30-Apr 5. References Bedi, M. (2013). Facebook and interpersonal privacy: why the third party doctrine should not apply. DePaul University College of Law, 1-73. Boyd, D., & Hargittai, E. (2010). Facebook Privacy Settings: Who Cares? First Monday. Available at: journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/3086/2589 (Accessed: 23 February 2017). Eric, B. (2007). Privacy in social networking: A usability study of privacy interfaces for Facebook. Thesis: Harvard College, 1-125. Fogel, J., & Nehmad, E. (2009). Internet social network communities: Risk taking, trust, and privacy concerns. Computers in Human Behavior, 153-160. Hoffman, B. C. (2012). An exploratory study of a users Facebook security and privacy settings. Theses: Minnesota State University, 1-59. Kirkpatrick, marshall, kendall, len, young, mat, macmanus, richard, lardinois, frederic, jeffries, adrianne, Curry, D., Sponsors, R., Wolf, D., Jacobs, C.C. and Power, D. (2010) Why Facebook is wrong: Privacy is still important. Available at: http://readwrite.com/2010/01/11/why_facebook_is_wrong_about_privacy/ (Accessed: 23 February 2017). Liu, Y., Gummadi, K. P., Krishnamurthy, B., & Mislove, A. (2011). Analyzing facebook privacy settings: User expectations vs reality. ACM Digital Library, 61-70. Ostrow, A. (2009, September 16). Privacy: Facebook is one of Americas most trusted companies. Available at:mashable.com/2009/09/16/facebook-privacy-truste/#1l1mcuoc7o (Accessed: 23 February 2017). Raynes-Goldie, K. S. (2012). Privacy in the age of Facebook: Discourse, Architecture, Consequences. Theses: Curtin University , 1-266. Statt, N. (2013, May 3). Facebooks new trusted contacts: can you really trust your friends. Available at: readwrite.com/2013/05/03/facebooks-new-trusted-contacts-can-you-really-trust-your-friends/ (Accessed: 23 February 2017). Warfel, E. A. (2008). Perceptions of privacy on Facebook. Thesis: Rochester Institute of Technology, 1-32. Warren, K. (2013, May 13). Recruiting in todays social media age: How to manage your online presence. Available at: www.devex.com/news/recruiting-in-today-s-social-media-age-how-to-manage-your-online-presence-80932 (Accessed: 23 February 2017). Zilles, C. (2017, January 17). Can Facebook be trusted with all your personal information. Available at: socialmediahq.com/can-facebook-be-trusted-with-all-your-personal-information/ (Accessed: 23 February 2017).

ICT for Special Educational Needs Support

ICT for Special Educational Needs Support The Potential of ICT Supporting Pupils with Special Educational Needs Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Background Information and Communications Technology (ICT) is the use of computers in education and offers enormous potential to teachers and pupils.  There is a growing number of consistent evidence which shows that ICT can and does improve learning outcomes, particularly in the core subjects of English and Mathematics (Cox et al, 2003).  Providing high quality software is matched to the specific needs of the individual, it can act as an effective and powerful tool in learning. While it cannot replace high quality teaching, it can enhance the learning process. The application of ICT to teaching and learning can provide many benefits such as, facilitating communication, increase access to information, improve motivation, increase problem solving capabilities and enable deeper understanding of complex ideas. ICT can provide pupils with special educational needs improved access to learning and areas of the curriculum which may have been previously inaccessible. According to Westwood (2003), â€Å"The largest single group of students with special needs comprises those with general and specific learning difficulties that are not related to any disability or impairment. Estimates suggest that this may be close to 20 per cent of the school population.  These learning difficulties most frequently manifest themselves as problems in acquiring basic literacy and numeracy skills’ which impact adversely on a child’s ability to learn in most subjects across the curriculum.† (Westwood, 2003, P5) The Audit Commission reports that one in five children in England and Wales has Special Educational Needs (SEN). This includes students with serious physical or learning difficulties but also many students whose reading, writing and numeracy skills develop slowly. Special needs include conditions such as dyslexia, physical disabilities, speech and language disorders, visual impairment, hearing loss, difficulties in communication, and emotional and behavioural difficulties.   In recent years, there has been an increase in evidence that technology can help these children overcome their communication and physical difficulties, so that they can be included in lesson activities and access a wider curriculum, as suggested by the Irish body, the Education of Science Department (ESD) in The Learning-Support Guidelines (2000), â€Å"‘Interactive computer-based systems allow the possibility of individualising the educational process to accommodate the needs, interests and learning styles of individual pupils. Individualised planning is fundamental to the successful use of ICT in supplementary teaching as it is to other forms of Learning Support. The planning process would include identifying a pupil’s individual learning needs and considering how ICT might be used to meet those needs.† (ESD, 2000, P86-87) Every learner has an entitlement to all the elements of cognitive, literacy and cultural learning. This belief is generally shared by all working with learners who experience any kind of difficulty, for whatever reason.  The introduction of the national Curriculum and the Code of Practice on the Identification and Assessment of Special Educational Needs (DfE, 1994), superseded by the new Code of Practice (2002), have given teachers the opportunity to put this clearly into practice because they provide and support a curriculum for all.  It is explicit in the National Curriculum that all learners have a right to a broad, balanced and relevant curriculum, which makes it difficult to exclude any learners from this entitlement.  Stansfield (2001) believes that incorporating ICT support strategies can be advantageous in making this occur. â€Å"For learners with Special Educational Needs (SEN), the use of ICT can convert this entitlement to reality.  The National Curriculum makes clear in each subject document that ICT should be used where appropriate, to support this process.† (Stansfield, 2001, P5) The National Curriculum (1999) identifies with this and makes clear in each subject document that ICT should be used where appropriate, to support this process. Appropriate provision should be made for pupils who need to use: Means of communication other than speech, including computers, technological aids, signing, symbols or lip-reading; Technological aids in practical and written work; Aids or adapted equipment to allow access to practical activities with and beyond school (National Curriculum, 1999) In Wales, the government have recently put forward their vision for education for Wales in the 21st Century, with a far stronger emphasis on including all learners and the use of ICT to support this.  The Learning Country: Vision into Action, (DELLS, 2006) highlights the need for a learner-centred curriculum if standards are to be raised and all learners’ experiences of education improved.  The document makes clear that all learners means just that –  including pupils with learning difficulties, specific disabilities and motivation problems; those who are gifted and talented, from different ethnic/cultural groups and looked after children.   This vision was further realised and put into place through the National Curriculum for Wales 2008, further emphasising the importance of these key issues that are central to my research.  The document Making the Most of Learning (2008a) clarifies this, suggesting that the†¦ â€Å"†¦development and application of thinking, communication and skills across the curriculum for all learners, schools should choose material that will: provide a meaningful, relevant and motivating curriculum meet the specific needs of learners and further their all-round development. So that the revised national curriculum subject orders and frameworks are truly learner-centred,† (DELLS, 2008a, P4) Legislation promotes the notion that students with SEN should have access to ICT.  ICT is incorporated into the National Curriculum and therefore access should be made to a range of devices to promote inclusion.  Access devices, such as switches, keyboard alternatives, key-guards and joy-sticks can help learners with physical difficulties to use a computer, and enable them to access the same curriculum as their peers.   Pupils, who have literacy difficulties or an impaired visual disability, should also have access to enlarged texts or speech devices and equipment in order that it is possible to hear the words and text in the way that children who do not have SEN, can read without encountering any problems.  For some students technology may be the only way to ensure they can make their thoughts and needs known.  For them, access to appropriate ICT-based solutions possibly provides the only chance of participating in society and realising their full potential. Given the vital role that ICT can play in helping children with special needs to communicate and be involved in learning, it is disappointing that there is relatively little research published in academic journals regarding the use of ICT to support inclusive practice.  Many sources of information include reports from charities and policy organisations with expertise in the area of special needs.  Amongst these groups there are a growing number of small-scale case studies being undertaken (BECTA, BDA), showing the difference that ICT can make to individuals both at school and at home. Many of these case studies are powerful evidence of the potential that technology has in making a profound difference for students.  Such studies may also provide teachers with examples of the use of different types of ICT in varying circumstances, some of which may be applicable to their own students.  Hence even though these case studies may be small-scale, they can be of significant value. The promise that technology brings to education has yet to be truly implemented across all schools successfully which is perplexing due to the strong evidence that permeates throughout educational research and government policy, even though minimal.  There are clearly many obstacles or barriers for schools to progress with the successful application of ICT for supporting their learners, whether this is due to financial support, time, misguidance or even technology overload it is unclear.  Therefore I needed to carry out my own research to investigate the potential of ICT supporting pupils with SEN and share my findings with others to support the development of ICT based pedagogy.   1.2 The Research Organisation and Aims This research will set out to investigate the potential of implementing an ICT intervention strategy to support the learning and development of pupils with special educational needs.  This will be carried out by undertaking an extensive literature review of the current research and recommendations within this field.  This will then be reflected upon, in order to acquire a clear understanding of the possibilities, features and problems related to such an intervention approach.  The information gathered through the literature review will be used to inform a Case Study, focusing on how the implementation of various ICT support techniques could provide an individual pupil, with specific learning needs, improved access to the National Curriculum. In consultation with the school’s SEN team, it was decided that Pupil A would benefit from the intervention strategies, a child with mild/moderate learning difficulties who was receiving one-to-one support 15 hours a week with a Teaching Assistant.  However, shortly after initiating participant training, pupil discussion and implementation of the intervention strategies adopted, an unexpected problem occurred with the whole Case Study.  The parent of Pupil A had been offered a new job which meant that the family had to move out of the area and the school – the research site.  Therefore, the discussion process got underway once more, in the search for a pupil who would benefit from such an intervention process, while being supportive to the research study. I finally decided upon inviting Pupil B to take part in my study, due to the similarities in the difficulties experiencing access to the curriculum as with Pupil A.  Pupil B has been diagnosed with Dyslexia and is currently receiving 15 hours of support per week and is located in the same class as pupil A, therefore the class teacher could still participate. Coupled with this similarity of circumstance for selection, was a point made within Pupil B’s Occupational Therapy Assessment Report (Appendix 10), specifying the recommendation for an ICT intervention strategy in order to support the recording of his thinking and learning. â€Å"As a Year 5 pupil it is important for ****** ‘s long-term recording needs to be developed to permit speed and endurance in order for him to devote his attention to content of work i.e. sentence construction, punctuation, etc.  Development of IT skills and a measured approach to written recording is therefore recommended.† (Appendix 11) This proved to be an ideal solution for the research, though more importantly for the pupil’s needs.  The Pupil Profile section within Chapter 4 highlights the main issues regarding Pupil B’s learning difficulties and the nature of support he requires due to his dyslexia.  Keates (2000) explains that one of the main groups of people with Special Educational Needs who could potentially obtain many benefits from ICT is those with dyslexia. â€Å"Dyslexic pupils face some difficulties in the school including problems in the processing of sound and note-taking. ICT gives access to the curriculum of the subject being taught for dyslexic pupils. Dyslexic pupils often respond positively and quickly to using computer systems, fast realising the support, facilitation and access to a learning environment that ICT affords them.† (Keates, 2000, P4) These are the main reasons for the focus on Dyslexia within this research and the selection of a pupil for the Case Study who possesses this condition. Therefore, coupled with the time frame available and considering the nature of the research site, this selection was deemed the most feasible, in respect to gauging any effect on standards and ability levels through the inclusion of ICT intervention strategies.  In order to measure any improvements a series of pre-test and post-tests will be carried out and comparison made.  Through this approach, an analysis of reading, writing and spelling will be undertaken, which are the main concerns highlighted within his Individual Education Plan and SEN statement. When considering all of these issues two questions were generated in my head which became the Key Research Questions, which act as a guide and focus. Key Question 1: Why adopt ICT in Learning Support for pupils with Special Educational Needs? Key Question 2: How can ICT encourage and facilitate teachers and peers engagement in supportive learning, in a more productive way than might otherwise happen?   These questions are considered throughout the whole research and are reflected on when considering recommendations from literature in the field, examined and discussed within the following Chapter 2.  The research methodologies adopted throughout this inquiry are described in detail in Chapter 3.  While Chapter 4 provides a detailed report of the Case Study carried out with specific reference to the overriding research questions. Finally, Chapter 5 contains a presentation and analysis of the findings exposing the successful outcomes and issues arising from the Case Study.  Conclusions are related and compared with that of claims made by literature within the field in order to justify inferences.  The concluding chapter also offers recommendations for further research and intervention processes for implementing ICT strategies for supporting pupils with SEN. The Potential of ICT Supporting Pupils with Special Educational Needs CHAPTER 2: Literary Review Technology and Pedagogy 2.1 Introduction Although the use of ICT in mainstream education has its origins in the 1970s, it has only been in recent years that the government has identified the importance of and paid special attention to the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT)  in Special Educational Needs (SEN).  Investment in ICT and the development of policy and practice in meeting SEN requirements have created unprecedented opportunity for the inclusion of all pupils in meaningful learning experiences. This recent and welcomed emphasis on inclusion, coupled with the ever-advancing technologies, have stimulated much interest in using various ICT applications for both individualised learning and for integrating pupils with disabilities into a mainstream school environment.  This chapter provides an overview of some of the issues regarding teaching and learning with technology to support SEN, while exploring the polarized opinions that run through research and literature within this field and the possibilities which these two merging areas within education can provide an individual learner. Davitt (2005), suggest that even though for many decades educationalists and ICT specialists have advocated the potential benefits of using ICT to support and extend learning opportunities, both in mainstream and special education, it is only in recent years that research in this field  is beginning to gain substantial momentum.  Underlying this faith in ICT, whether acknowledged or not, are clear assumptions about the way in which children learn and the attributes of ICT.  The learning theories that are core to most ICT learning to date are considered by Jones and Mercer to, â€Å"†¦embody a strongly individualistic conception of learning which has dominated learning theory and educational practice in this field† (Jones and Mercer, 1993, P19) Many writers have extolled the benefits of using ICT in a learning environment with SEN, suggesting that technology can act as a great equaliser in overcoming or compensating for differences among learners. See, for example, the Code of Practice on Special Educational Needs (DfEE, 1998a), the Green Paper on Special Educational Needs (DfEE, 1997) and the SEN action programme (DfEE, 1998b) which recommends that; â€Å"There will be more effective and widespread use of Information and Communications Technology to support the education of children with special educational needs, both in mainstream and special schools† (DfEE, 1998b, P26) This idea has important implications for learners with disabilities and special educational needs because it suggests that technology can help create the conditions for equal opportunity to learn and equal access to the curriculum for all.  The appeal of technology as an equaliser for learners with special educational needs is borne out in the many materials that have been developed to address special educational needs.  In particular is the formerly National Council for Educational Technology (NCET) now British Educational Communications and Technology Agency (BECTA), who provide a range of information to help identify technologies to aid the learning process of pupils with special needs.  BECTA are the body advising the government on the use of technology in education and published a compendium of research findings entitled ‘IT works!’ (See Appendix: 1) The report made as many as 27 assertions with supportive references from research, however, the assertions made here may need to be seen in the context of a government trying to re-affirm and justify a belief in the educational potential of new technologies.  Nevertheless, they can offer a useful starting point for a discussion of the potential of ICT to enhance pupils’ learning. Professional magazines and trade shows also offer a dazzling array of devices and programmes covering all areas of the curriculum and all types of learning difficulties.  For example, the official magazine of the UK’s National Association for Special Educational Needs, ‘Special’, contains an ICT guide as a regular feature.  This feature explores a range of issues from reviews of programmes to the skills that teaching assistants need to support learners.   It covers all types of learning with technology for all kinds of learners.  Many ICT hardware and software developers such as the Semerc group currently provide training for teachers and support workers to develop their professional practice and provision for pupils with SEN requirements who use their product. 2.2 The Information Supermarket Highway The plethora of available information, software titles and hardware strategies covered under the heading ICT and SEN can be daunting.  In the pressurised world of teaching, there is little opportunity to think critically about what is available or how it should be used and would this best match an individual pupil.  In a review of the instructional effectiveness of technology for pupils with SEN, Woodward et al. (2001) examined the research on software curriculum, specifically designed for pupils with such needs.  They identified a number of design variables thought to affect academic outcomes for pupils with SEN, such as the type of feedback, visual quality, practice, strategy instruction, assessment and motivation. Woodward et al. found that there are no simple answers to the question of effectiveness: â€Å"simply because a program or approach has been validated by research does not necessarily mean it will be used as intended in practice† (Woodward, et al, 2001, P21) The rhetoric accompanying new technological devices in education, and particularly special education, seems to have been very influential, confirming new ways of thinking and talking about teaching and learning.  However, there still prevails a lack of clarity, understanding and application of technology being used to its full potential throughout the education system.   The culmination of grandiose and radical suggestions prominent in commercial slogan and catchy advertisements that are attractive to the educational eye, maybe responsible for our previous lack in informed purchasing, the appropriate matching of resources and effective teaching with the aid of technological resources to promote and maximise the learning of all pupils.   Many government papers are littered with the evidence of mismatched spending and resources for learning, that has resulted in missed opportunities, depleted tax payers finances, and a waste of genuinely keen practitioners time and efforts to provide improved services to their learners and an increased possibility of teachers becoming switched off from the possibilities of ICT enhancing teaching and learning.  The Scottish Government’s paper on Education and Disability (2002) provides a perfect example of this detrimental situation within their plan to improve access to education for pupils with disabilities. â€Å"Through the National Grid for Learning, new computers and networks are being installed in schools across Scotland to allow pupils to benefit from the use of ICT in learning. At the moment, various service providers are being contracted to install the network, but some pupils with disabilities are unable to use these computers for a variety of reasons.  Therefore, as part of their accessibility strategies, responsible bodies should make certain that contracts for any future supply of computers or upgrade of existing stock ensure that the computers (and associated furniture) are accessible or can easily be modified to be accessible to pupils with disabilities. (Scottish Executive, 2002, P 17, 47–48, www 12) What is clear from this financial miscalculation and poor organisation is that the LEA services should be providing schools with the appropriate information for purchasing ICT software and hardware.  Schools should make critical assessments on their ICT requirements in terms of what they want it do, who it is for and what are the expected outcomes from the resource.  Merely placing a PC in a classroom is not going to improve the learning experience for pupils.  Many factors have to be taken into consideration in order for the inclusion of technology to be successfully applied to pedagogy. 2.3 The Technological Pedagogical Debate In early 1998, the Department for Education and Employment (DfEE) responded to the claims made for ICT by publishing a set of criteria to form an integral part of Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses stating that: â€Å"ICT is more than a teaching tool. Its potential for improving the quality and standards of pupils’ education is significant. Equally, its potential is considerable for supporting teachers, both in their everyday classroom role, for example by reducing the time occupied by the administration associated with it, and in their continuing training and development† (DfEE 1998, P17) This pressure on teachers to assimilate ICT in their work can, therefore, to some extent be seen to be predicated by an acceptance of the claims made in support of the educational potential of ICT.  The potential of ICT to liberate users from routine tasks and empower them, for instance, to focus on the creative and cognitive rather than procedural aspects of writing or to make accessible vast amounts of information is to some extent reflected in the National Curriculum Orders for Information Technology, which emphasise the capabilities of communicating and handling information in various forms. â€Å"Schools should provide opportunities, where appropriate, for learners to develop and apply their ICT skills across the curriculum by finding, developing, creating and presenting information and ideas and by using a wide range of equipment and software.† (DELLS, 2008b, P6) There are clearly strong claims to be made for ICT, but to view ICT as the solution to the educational challenges we face purely by virtue of its sheer existence, is misguided.  The success of ICT use depends on our familiarity with good practice firmly rooted in an understanding of how pupils learn and our reflection on optimal environments of ICT use as bases for pedagogic innovation beyond the assimilation of new technologies into prevailing traditions of classroom practice.  In view of the fundamental changes to our concept of knowledge, the learning process, the role of the teacher and human relations more widely brought about by ICT use, we need to go beyond doing the things we have always done, albeit with the help of new technologies. The core aim of the 1998 DfEE ITT for ICT was†¦ â€Å"†¦to equip every qualified teacher with the knowledge, skills and understanding to make sound decisions about when, when not, and how to use ICT effectively in teaching particular subjects†. (DfEE 1998, p. 17) In my view this aim requires a basic familiarity or relationship with learning theories and the findings from educational psychology as otherwise there is a real danger that the implementation of the computer activity may too easily encourage a distancing of teacher involvement; or as Crook (1994) suggests,   â€Å"†¦a dislocation from the normally rich context of class-based activity and discussion†. (Crook , 1994, P18) Whilst acknowledging the fundamental impact on traditional pedagogical modes, it is important to emphasise how the effectiveness of new technologies in the learning process depends on the ‘centrality’ of the role of the teacher in rendering pupils’ experiences with technology coherent, by embedding them in a context of interpersonal support.  The role of the teacher, therefore, remains pivotal, such as in identifying appropriate learning outcomes, choosing appropriate activities and structuring the learning process.   In their analysis of the contribution new technologies can make to teaching and learning, Gregoire et al. (1996) provided the following with respect to student learning: New technologies can stimulate the development of intellectual skills New technologies can contribute to the ways of learning knowledge, skills and attitudes, although this is dependent on previously acquired knowledge and the type of learning activity New technologies spur spontaneous interest more than traditional approaches Students using new technologies concentrate more than students in traditional settings These positive images are, however, balanced by two further observations of genuine significance: The benefit to students of using new technologies is greatly dependent, at least for the moment, on the technological skill of the teacher and the teacher’s attitude to the presence of the technology in teaching. The skill and this attitude in turn are largely dependent on the training staff have received in this area (Gregoire et al., 1996, P18, www10) Despite the over deterministic inference behind some of the statements, Gregoire et al. (1996) are sounding a warning that technology itself is not a panacea, and that without skilled application by the teacher its benefits may soon recede. The crucial element remains the way in which the technology is incorporated into pedagogical patterns and this is in turn dependent upon the impact it has on the personal theories of the teachers deploying the technology in their classrooms.   2.4 Scaffolding Learning Using ICT Collis et al. (1997) argue that the within a technological approach to pedagogy, the scaffolding role of the teacher is crucial, however the potential of ICT is exploited infrequently due to effective implementation of techniques being heavily reliant on the teacher providing the appropriate support for learning.  Regardless of the suggested gains from any type of technological tool, it is when the teacher supports and guides learning that these benefits are maximised (Waller, 1999).   The computer does not enhance the learning experience unless teachers incorporate ICT very carefully into the curriculum.  The role of the teacher is highly significant in the structure and outcomes of ICT based activities.  The teacher guides and directs the pupils learning through structured planning, organising the activity, interventions during the learning process and the ways pupils apply their ICT skills within various contexts. Mercer and Fisher discuss Bruner’s (1997) idea of ‘scaffolding’, where they suggest teachers need to be reflective and mindful of how they structure learning experience that require the use of technology to support pupil learning. â€Å"If we can describe and evaluate the ways that teachers attempt to scaffold childrens learning with computers then we might be able to help teachers understand and perform their role in supporting childrens computer based activities. â€Å" (Mercer and Fisher, 1997, P210) Bruner (1978) suggests that the Scaffolding process involves the adult guiding and supporting pupil learning by building on previous understanding and abilities.  In assisting the development of pupils, educators require a clear view of learning objectives and understand that their role is to support learners enabling them to develop more independently.  The amount and type of support required will vary depending on the pupil and the nature of the task.  Tharp (1993) put forward a range of strategies that can be adopted to support pupil development through an instructional conversation, described as: Modelling Contingency management Instructing Questioning Cognitive structuring Task Structuring Feedback (Tharp, 1993, P272) According to Tharp, the most productive strategy for support is providing feedback, as this enables pupils to assess their efforts to achieve set objectives, which will be taken into consideration during the planning and participant training phase of this research. Mercer (1993) suggests that the quality of understanding, of which learners obtain through the application of ICT in the classroom, will not be controlled the quality of the technological tool applied; more accurately, it is determined by the approaches utilised to interact between the teacher, pupil and the ‘interface’.  Cook and Finlayson (1999) concur with this idea and describe the application of ICT to support learning as a joint activity, â€Å"†¦the way that learners and the learning support mechanisms of teachers, computer program and fellow group members work together so that the highest possible level of performance becomes achievable.† (Cook and Finlayson, 1999, P100)   In support of this view, Labbo (2000) indicates that relying solely on technology to scaffold learning is not necessarily going to help or maximise the potential of the learner.  Applying a model based exclusively on computer aided instruction is far from ‘authentic learning’; despite the fact that certain educationalists and politicians find this model appealing and the way forward. I believe that before decisions are made to move forward within this field there is a great necessity for further research in order to realise that the combination of technology and how it can support the reciprocal roles of the teacher and child is far more significant than the technology itself.  Arguably, it is this strong pupil-teacher relationship that requires attention and what should be central to the teaching and learning process, even when the technological tool is absent from any learning experience. 2.5 The Potential of ICT Supporting SEN ICT been used to support learners with SEN within mainstream schools for some time, under the terms of assistive or enabling technology, adapting to developments in technology and educational policy changes for learners with different needs.  In Blamires (1999) it is put forward that; â€Å"Ena